AMPLIFY  VOL. 37, NO. 9
  

Professionals are essential to a healthy and just modern society. The provision of crucial structures and services — ranging from health guidance and legal resolutions to high-quality infrastructure and more — relies on the expertise of professionals. Without access to these fundamental goods and services, societal growth would be significantly hindered.¹

Professionals serve as indispensable intermediaries, whose specialized knowledge and skills grant them authority and responsibility to act in the best interests of those they serve. Their obligations extend beyond their immediate patients or clients to the broader public, encompassing justice, safety, dignity, and rights. Given their substantial social eminence and impact, some regard the roles of professionals as inherently moral.²

Worryingly, however, trust in professionals is declining in the general population. For example, in 2023, a representative sample of Americans rated 22 of 23 professions as less trustworthy than in 2019, with an average six-point drop, and only six of the 23 professions were rated “high/very high” in terms of honesty and ethics.³ Equally concerning are the internal struggles of professionals, who face high rates of substance abuse, depression, stress, and suicide.^4,5 Medical and legal professionals suffer from secondary or vicarious trauma due to errors or adverse outcomes for their clients or patients.⁶

Such mistrust and distress result in part from the nature of professional education and the market economy, in which emerging professionals often have a limited understanding of the full scope of their profession’s telos (its purpose and reason for being), which defines its ethical values, identity, responsibilities, and activities.⁷ This means that emerging professionals may lack a full appreciation of the value they can create and/or miss opportunities to steward critical social systems.

How did we get here? In brief, professional education emerged from theological origins, with religious institutions playing a central role in training clergy and, by extension, shaping early education for professions such as law and medicine — even if those institutions did not always uphold these values. For generations, children followed parents into these professions, organically imbibing the profession’s values and practices. Over time, as societal values shifted during the Renaissance and Enlightenment, professional education began to secularize and diversify, moving away from theological anchoring toward more specialized and scientific approaches, as well as toward more inclusive and accessible educational models, allowing a more diverse set of individuals to enter various professions.

Despite these advancements, and possibly because of them, emerging professionals found themselves approaching the world of work with less well-formed notions of the stewardship role they play for their profession, the moral values that shape its proper practice, and the social structures with which the profession interacts and on which it depends.⁸

Are We Losing the Moral High Ground?

In an effort to fill that gap and provide students with a more well-formed understanding of their professional roles and responsibilities, professional schools have for decades taught classes in professional ethics, which tend to cover crucial ethical standards, principles, and codes of conduct.

Rules, while essential, are insufficient for navigating the complexities of real-world ethical dilemmas because they may not address nuanced situations or evolving societal expectations. True ethical professionalism requires a deeper commitment to reflective practice and moral reasoning, as well as ongoing engagement with the broader impact of one’s professional decisions. Moreover, professional relationships are often formed in times of vulnerability (e.g., ill health, legal quandaries). A good professional acts competently, fulfilling responsibilities, maintaining confidentiality, and making choices in the best interests of those whose life outcomes depend on their professional expertise and judgment.⁹

This dependability is especially necessary in situations involving conflicting interests or uncertainties. Professionals operate within contexts of extraordinary complexity. Legal experts must navigate evolving systems and unpredictable actors. Engineers must adapt to unexpected occurrences and consider frequent feedback to create robust designs. In medicine, professionals must account for multifaceted patient factors within diverse contexts, requiring a holistic view of biological, psychological, and social interactions.

Codes of conduct cannot fully address the demands and nuances of such complexity. Claiming otherwise or oversimplifying the issue leaves professionals ill-equipped to navigate the intricate, unpredictable, high-stakes challenges they face.

We advocate for a virtue-oriented approach to complement existing codes of conduct. As the authors of Virtue Ethics and Professional Roles assert, a lasting sense of professional identity is undeniably based on virtue.¹⁰ The impetus for a virtuous professional identity arises from a deep and collectively held sense of professional purpose. And sustaining that sense of professional purpose so that it can act as a North Star requires professionals to have an identity founded on seeing themselves as important moral actors who are essential to human flourishing.

Additionally, we believe that a robust professional purpose must be accompanied by the capacity to feel joy in one’s professional pursuits. The inability to do so is likely to lead to the stress and suffering discussed earlier, including burnout. Although discussing joy in the context of professional purpose may seem unconventional, it is central to a virtue ethics approach. It is important to note that the purpose of life, according to the Stoics and other ancient Greek philosophers, is eudaimonia, commonly translated as “happiness” or “joy.” Eudaimonia is the state of fulfillment, of possessing a good soul or having one’s reason function optimally, with virtue as the essential component. As we discussed earlier, virtue is crucial to developing an appropriate professional identity. Philosopher Christopher Gill describes virtue as “expertise in leading a happy life.”¹¹

The four cardinal virtues that Stoicism also promotes (wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance) are fundamental principles guiding ethical behavior in personal and professional life. We believe that Stoicism offers an extremely relevant virtue ethics framework for the discussion of professional purpose and identity.

Stoic Ethics for Moral Modern Professionals

In a nutshell, Stoicism advocates for an expanded sense of self, in which people broaden their sphere of concern and action. The virtuous person fosters understanding and interconnectedness, thus reducing the emotional and relational distance between themselves and others.

This attitude is akin to the modern social psychological concept of “inclusion of other in self,” in which a person’s sphere of interest, affection, and commitment extends to significant others and even to entire groups beyond their immediate circle.^12,13 The Stoic Hierocles offered a useful visual representation of such a self: a person located within ever-broadening concentric circles representing social groups all the way up to the dimension of the universe-city or cosmopolis.

In a business context, an understanding of the self as embedded in various layers of society, combined with an appreciation of our shared humanity and responsibility to one another, can have profound implications for how a businessperson sees themselves in relation to their myriad stakeholders. Similarly, a doctor or lawyer would benefit from seeing their scope of influence extending beyond the patient/client directly in front of them, to one that includes an examination of systems and structures that are responsible for poor health outcomes, on the one hand, and injustice, on the other.

Beyond Aristotle

Aristotle’s impact on modern virtue ethics highlights the critical importance of childhood development and social influences on ethical character formation through habituation, but he offers minimal explicit ethical guidance. Contemporary thinkers echo this focus on social context.^14,15

We turn to Stoicism to provide a different perspective because it puts an emphasis on ethical growth during early adulthood. Stoics believe everyone has inherent capacities for ethical development that can be aided by formal philosophical (moral) instruction and regular practice in adulthood, even if one’s upbringing did not reflect these values.

Stoics can inform a virtue ethics approach to the professions in several ways. First, Stoicism emphasizes a cosmopolitan perspective, seeing individuals as citizens of the universe rather than just a city-state. This broader view aligns well with the globally interconnected nature of modern life while acknowledging the importance of local and personal commitments.

Second, unlike Aristotle, who saw a tension between the contemplative and active components of life, Stoicism sees contemplative and active modes as complementary. The Stoics argued that a person should not seek a state of pure detachment but should engage in his or her jobs, roles, and activities with a virtuous motivation, constantly correcting traditional values such as success and profit by weighing them against those prescribed by virtue (which prioritize the common good).¹⁶

Thus, virtues should be implemented within specific communities and roles, recognizing multiple intersecting identities.¹⁷ For the Stoic Panaetius, as reported by Cicero in On Duties, these include our common human nature, individual talents, social roles, and chosen careers, and he advised that we should mediate between and harmonize these roles to achieve virtue-based happiness.¹⁸

Perhaps the greatest value to modern professionals comes from the Stoic concept of the “mediating self.” Coined by this paper’s coauthor, Gretchen Reydams-Schils, a scholar who works on Stoicism, this notion reminds professionals that the self is not only socially and cosmically embedded, it is continuously reassessing values and roles.¹⁹ This view would allow professionals to strive for the ideal while remaining firmly grounded in reality.

The Mediating Self

Stoicism promotes virtuous judgments and actions that transcend narrow self-interest, and at the heart of this expansive understanding of the self is the notion that our social and cosmic embeddedness provides the basis for our human interactions and choices. In this way, Stoicism sees both the contemplative and active lives as essential for achieving a virtuous and fulfilling existence.

Modern professionals occupy roles that require judgment beyond their ethical codes, as in the case of a lawyer balancing duties to clients and the court or a businessperson balancing fiduciary responsibilities to shareholders, employees, customers, and the environment. Their professional identity is unified yet multifaceted, integrating distinct but interrelated responsibilities to fulfill their roles ethically and effectively. The concept of the mediating self helps professionals navigate their various roles and situational demands, balancing between the cosmic or ideal and the local or imperfect.

The Stoic philosopher Seneca asserts that while virtue is indivisible, its application varies with the context.²⁰ A Stoic framework acknowledges prevailing norms while promoting critical reevaluation of these norms when they do not support the good. When professionals find that norms conflict with their goals or the people they serve, they should turn inward for strength and outward to find moral exemplars to bring about necessary positive changes.²¹ 

In the context of Stoic cosmopolitanism, the mediating self that navigates existing (and often misguided) norms helps ensure modern professionals can perform their duties with the right motivations and dispositions.

Can Profit Be Virtuous?

Most professionals operate within a profit-driven context, which creates an intrinsic tension between maximizing profit and ethical conduct. This tension is especially significant in market economies and the private sector, where profit is a defining feature.

Yet philosophically speaking, profit and virtue need not be at odds, and Stoicism does not reject wealth per se. It views certain externals, such as wealth, as “preferred indifferents” (i.e., one can pursue these as long as they do not conflict with the good, strictly defined as virtue). The challenge arises in how profit is valued and pursued within organizations. When profit is prioritized excessively at the expense of ethical considerations, it undermines a virtuous professional identity. Stoicism encourages us to assess the true utility of profit and its alignment with virtuous living.

Effective ethical development helps professionals balance “preferred indifferents” with their societal roles, professional goals, and the interests of various stakeholders. This shift from short-term gains to sustainable, long-term value creation requires recognizing the social dimension and applying practical deliberation. A virtuous professional in a profit-oriented context should adopt a tempered and courageous approach, understanding that profit is not the sole metric of success.²² Instead, virtues should guide decision-making, leading to a more comprehensive view of business success. Practicing generosity, justice, and temperance in managing and distributing wealth ensures it benefits the greater good rather than fostering self-indulgence.²³

Take YKK, a multinational company guided by the Japanese philosophy of the “Cycle of Goodness” and the motto “No one prospers without rendering benefit to others.” YKK exemplifies virtues such as wisdom and temperance by making informed decisions that consider long-term impacts on all stakeholders. It balances business growth with social and environmental responsibility through sustainable practices, innovative products, and a commitment to quality. YKK’s dedication to fairness and equity is reflected in its establishment of company-wide virtuous behavioral principles and its treatment of employees and suppliers.

Earthjustice is a nonprofit environmental law organization known for its litigation and advocacy. Its tagline, “Because the Earth needs a good lawyer,” reflects its commitment to justice and indicates its courage to confront boldly environmental threats. This approach aligns with Stoic ideals of ethical conduct and dedication to the common good.

How To

The Stoics had practical strategies for developing and fortifying character. We offer three Stoic practices as a starting point for nurturing a virtue-grounded professional identity that can help professionals deal with uncertainty, complexity, and negative emotions:

1. Stoic philosophers such as Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, and Epictetus practiced negative visualization, or praemeditatio malorum (premeditation of evils), as a form of pre-exposure to potential problems. This practice helped them reduce their sensitivity and impulsive reactions to shocking and difficult circumstances.²⁴ Although anticipating future hardships might seem unpalatable, the Stoics recommended it to maintain discipline and virtue in responding to unexpected and painful circumstances. This practice and resulting mindset would greatly benefit professionals working under extreme time pressure with resource constraints, complex systems, and high stakes for both themselves and the people they serve. It would aid in professional identity formation because people would develop a sense of themselves as proactive rather than solely reactive. The Stoics famously did not dwell on negative emotions. They did, however, take failures and disappointment seriously, rather than ignoring, avoiding, trivializing, or negatively internalizing them.

2. Marcus Aurelius, in Meditations, practices a form of regular reflection, taking time to assess one’s actions and thoughts.²⁵ This practice is aimed at uncovering behavioral and cognitive patterns, fostering personal growth, and continuously improving one’s moral character. Seneca regularly engaged in self-examination at night. Approaching these rituals with honesty, discipline, and a focus on professional purpose (combined with an acceptance of one’s diverse roles) can enhance decision-making and leadership. Reflective meditations are particularly valuable for understanding how one implicitly prioritizes various “indifferents” in relation to virtue and the ways this prioritization was reflected in one’s actions and choices that day. A reflective pause at the end of each day allows for a realignment of those values (if necessary), in accordance with one’s professional purpose and identity. One’s sense of purpose and identity are also reinvigorated and renewed through such reflections, thereby retaining their North Star–like quality in challenging times.

3. Stoic expert Nancy Sherman describes a useful analogy employed by the Stoics: an archer’s objective is to hit the bullseye, but her ultimate goal is to strive earnestly to achieve that objective.²⁶ In other words, the archer pursues two related but distinct values: the specific objective of hitting the target and the broader goal of diligent, wholehearted effort. The objective, while preferred, is ultimately indifferent, whereas the ultimate goal (embodying the virtue of striving) is crucial for a fulfilling life. This distinction is particularly relevant for professionals facing significant uncertainty and high stakes. Excellence in one’s role, achieved with competence and an understanding of its social value, fulfills professional purpose, even if specific outcomes fall short. As Sherman notes, “Excellence doesn’t bring immunity from failure or suffering … from moral distress. But it is a source of psychological sustenance of a profound sort.”²⁷ Being clear-eyed about objectives and goals helps one to accept losses gracefully and to forge ahead with purpose and joy.

Practice Makes Stoic

The Stoics emphasized a deliberate approach to self-awareness and decision-making that involved rigorous practice. Their emphasis on practice was the result of their understanding that many decisions are automatic, a phenomenon later explored by psychologist and author Daniel Kahneman: our rapid-thinking system often overshadows slower, more thoughtful processes and is a fundamental aspect of human nature.²⁸ To make rationality central to decision-making, we must train and condition it to become readily accessible and usable. Such training is essential not only for mitigating implicit biases but also for fostering more thoughtful and mature decision-making in complex situations.

Consistent practice and prioritization are crucial, but emphasis on professional identity formation is often lacking in professional school curriculums. Integrating this approach is challenging due to market pressures for shorter degree timelines and intense job competition. However, cultivating a virtue-based professional identity grounded in a strong sense of professional purpose is essential for nurturing and retaining outstanding professionals throughout their careers.

We recommend that professional schools creatively adjust their curricula to prioritize this purpose-driven, virtue-based development. This shift requires not only different knowledge and skill sets from instructors but also a change in mindset from students and a structural change in the way such programs are set up. Achieving this goal will take time and sustained effort, and it will be more likely to happen if professional organizations prefer graduates with these qualities. Ongoing professional formation, peer reflection, and periodic reorienting toward these values within professional communities will also be key to long-term success.

Conclusion

In a landscape of professional work characterized by increasing complexity and market pressures, Stoic principles offer a valuable framework for emphasizing virtue, self-awareness, and moral responsibility. Stoicism’s focus on cosmopolitanism and the self as embedded within broader social and cosmic contexts provides a robust foundation for understanding the multifaceted roles professionals play.

Professional schools must adapt their curricula to foster this virtue-based approach, recognizing that ethical conduct extends beyond adherence to codes of practice. This shift requires both structural changes in educational programming and a cultural transformation within professional communities. Emphasizing continuous reflection, training in virtue, and a commitment to the broader social impact of professional actions can significantly enhance trust, well-being, and effectiveness in the profession.

By prioritizing the development of a purpose-driven, virtue-based professional identity, we envision a future where professionals thrive in their roles and uphold the highest standards of ethical excellence.

References

¹ Oakley, Justin, and Dean Cocking. Virtue Ethics and Professional Roles. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

² Davis, Michael. “The Special Role of Professionals in Business Ethics.” Business and Professional Ethics Journal, Vol. 7, No. 2, January 1988.

³ Brenan, Megan, and Jeffrey M. Jones. “Honesty/Ethics in Professions.” Gallup, accessed September 2024.

⁴ Weiner, Stacy. “Out of the Shadows: Physicians Share Their Mental Health Struggles.” Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), 28 March 2023.

⁵ Krill, Patrick R., Ryan Johnson, and Linda Albert. “The Prevalence of Substance Use and Other Mental Health Concerns Among American Attorneys.” Journal of Addiction Medicine, Vol. 10, No. 1, February 2016.

⁶ Hilfiker, David. “Facing Our Mistakes.” The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 310, No. 2, January 1984.

⁷ Oakley and Cocking (see 1).

⁸ Otteson, James R. Honorable Business: A Framework for Business in a Just and Humane Society. Oxford University Press, 2019.

⁹ Hawley, Katherine. Trust: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2012.

¹⁰ Oakley and Cocking (see 1).

¹¹ Gill, Christopher. Learning to Live Naturally: Stoic Ethics and Its Modern Significance. Oxford University Press, 2022.

¹² Aron, A., et al. “Close Relationships as Including Other in the Self.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 60, No. 2, 1991.

¹³ Tropp, Linda R., and Stephen C. Wright. “Ingroup Identification as the Inclusion of Ingroup in the Self.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 27, No. 5, May 2001.

¹⁴ MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. Third edition. Notre Dame Press, 2007.

¹⁵ Williams, Bernard. “Acting as the Virtuous Person Acts.” In Aristotle and Moral Realism, edited by Robert Heinaman. Routledge, 1996.

¹⁶ Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Letters on Ethics. University of Chicago Press, 2015.

¹⁷ Gill (see 11).

¹⁸ Cicero. On Duties. Harvard University Press, 1913.

¹⁹ Reydams-Schils, Gretchen. The Roman Stoics: Self, Responsibility, and Affection. University of Chicago Press, 2005.

²⁰ Seneca (see 16).

²¹ Reydams-Schils (see 19).

²² Mayer, Cokin. Prosperity: Better Business Makes the Greater Good. Oxford University Press, 2018.

²³ Hartman, Edwin M. “Virtue, Profit, and the Separation Thesis: An Aristotelian View.” Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 99, January 2011.

²⁴ Sherman, Nancy. Stoic Wisdom: Ancient Lessons for Modern Resilience. Oxford University Press, 2021.

²⁵ Aurelius, Marcus. Meditations. Penguin Books, 2005.

²⁶ Sherman (see 24).

²⁷ Sherman (see 24).

²⁸ Kahneman, Daniel. Thinking, Fast and Slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011.